Unsurprisingly, Russia tops the list of Europe’s strongest air forces—but the war in Ukraine has shown clearly the limitations of aircraft alone.

The ongoing conflict in Ukraine has renewed interest in the capabilities and quantities of European airpower.

While European air forces are generally less impressive than their American or Asian counterparts, the European continent still features a high concentration of well-equipped air forces. Though the majority of European countries are relatively modest in terms of air power, their forces are often quite strong relative to GDP, or national population.

Air Force Size vs. Strength: Similar, but Not the Same

A simple way to compare air forces around the world is by the number of aircraft they have in their inventory and the number of personnel serving in uniform. This comparison is relatively simple and straightforward, and is also informative; as a general rule, the more aircraft a country has, the stronger it is.

This top-line number does not tell the whole story. A nation can have many older aircraft, and nevertheless be defeated by a smaller one with newer, cutting-edge planes. Indeed, this is the story of the Israeli Air Force, which has historically punched far above its weight in contests with its numerically superior but technologically inferior Arab neighbors. Even among countries with similar capabilities on paper, dozens of other factors that are not always observable to outsiders—pilot training, maintenance and readiness rates, the presence of other assets such as airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) systems—can make the difference between victory and defeat. Ultimately, the only way to be certain which of two air forces is stronger is to see them go to war with one another—an extremely unlikely development in central Europe, which has remained at peace since 1945. The disparities between air forces have given rise to a cottage industry of analysts comparing their specifications and attempting to evaluate which would win short of war.

These European nations are believed to have the top five air forces when weighted for combat readiness, technology, and industrial infrastructure.

Honorable Mention: Germany

• Number of planes: 380
• Number of personnel: ~28,000

Though Germany’s air force is somewhat weaker than other European counterparts, it sits at the center of NATO and would certainly play an outsized role in any future military conflict involving the defensive alliance.

Germany’s Luftwaffe has more than 220 combat aircraft, over half of which are fourth-generation Eurofighter Typhoons and Panavia Tornados. However, it is aggressively modernizing, incorporating its newly-ordered F-35A Lightning II stealth fighters to replace the aging Tornado. Berlin has ordered around 35 of the jets; the first flight is scheduled for the fall of 2026, followed by German pilot training in Arkansas before the aircraft are returned to Europe.

Germany has a large conventional mass of aircraft and serves as the logistical and air defense backbone for NATO in the center of Europe. It has historically had trouble with fleet readiness bottlenecks. However, a recent infusion of cash into the German defense budget—part of Berlin’s broader ambition to spend 5 percent of its GDP on defense—has pushed Germany back towards reliability.

5. Italy

• Number of planes: ~740–960
• Number of personnel: 43,000

With nearly 200 combat aircraft in active service, Italy’s air force (Aeronautica Militare) is arguably the premier European hub for stealth operations. Italy has invested heavily in these capabilities; the Italian Air Force now operates a mix of F-35A and F-35B fighters. Supplementing its cutting-edge fifth-generation fighter jets are the Eurofighter Typhoon and Panavia Tornado, much as in Germany.

By operating its F-35Bs off its active aircraft carriers, Italy has successfully crafted an agile, maritime power projection capability across the Mediterranean. Italy’s air power is bolstered by its Cameri Final Assembly and Check-Out (FACO) facility—the only F-35 production and maintenance hub in Europe. This facility gives Rome industrial sovereignty over its stealth fleet and enables rapid local repairs.

4. France

• Number of planes: 520
• Number of personnel: ~44,000 (active duty and civilians)

France has long maintained a more independent foreign policy than other nations in Europe. Its desire for independence led it to develop nuclear weapons separately from the United States; more recently, its interest in a strong domestic defense industry led to its exit from the Eurofighter joint fighter jet program. Today, Paris operates the domestically-made Dassault Rafale instead—the centerpiece of its active fighter fleet of over 200 aircraft.

The French Air and Space Force (Armée de l’air et de l’espace) supplements the Rafale with aging Mirage 2000-5 fighters, which it is phasing out as new aircraft enter service. Notably, France is unique as Europe’s only completely independent, self-sustaining air arm, because Paris refuses to rely on American-made hardware. Its air forces even have nuclear deployment capabilities, thanks to the Rafale’s compatibility with the French ASMPA supersonic cruise missile. And with a nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, France can project power abroad like no other nation on the European continent.

3. United Kingdom

• Number of planes: 670
• Number of personnel: ~31,000 (active duty)

The Royal Air Force has a rich history. Although it is far younger than the Royal Navy—founded in 1918, compared to the illustrious British sea service’s founding date of 1546—it is no less distinguished; its “finest hour” came during the Battle of Britain in World War II, when RAF pilots fought off waves of German attackers and forced Adolf Hitler to cancel his planned invasion of the British isles. In more recent years, the RAF played a major role in the Falklands War of 1982, helping to free the Falkland Islands from an Argentine invasion, and again during the American-led wars in Afghanistan and Iraq.

The RAF’s rich history and international prominence overshadow its relatively small size, compared to other major players on the list. The UK has only around 160 high-end combat aircraft. This is at least in part by design; its force structure is built on a “high-low mix,” combining a few cutting-edge platforms with more low-cost attritable ones.

The crown jewel of the RAF is the US-imported F-35B Lightning II, which is integrated with a backbone of Eurofighter Typhoon FGR4s. The UK sacrifices raw volume for an emphasis on quality and networking. It functions as NATO’s primary European maritime and stealth scouting hub—thanks in part to the MBDA Meteor air-to-air missile, which gives its aircraft impressive beyond-visual-range capabilities. Expect to see the RAF feature prominently in any future conflict involving NATO.

2. Turkey

• Number of planes: ~1,000
• Number of personnel: ~50,000

Some observers may think of Turkey primarily as a Middle Eastern nation rather than a European one, it is a member of European institutions including the OSCE, the European customs union, and—most importantly—the NATO defensive alliance. Indeed, in addition to having the largest European land army in NATO, Turkey has the largest European air force as well, with more than 1,000 total aircraft and around 300 fighter jets.

The backbone of Turkey’s airpower is the US-made F-16 Fighting Falcon, a solid fourth-generation fighter jet. Turkey has operated the F-16 since 1987, and is the world’s largest non-American operator of the fighter jet. Ankara supplements the F-16’s combat power with a mix of older aircraft, including the ancient F-4 Phantom II and the F-5 Tiger II.

In recent years, Turkey has sought to develop newer manned fighters, notably the fifth-generation TF KAAN from Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI). However, Turkey’s greatest innovation in air warfare has been the development of relatively cheap and attritable drones—most prominently the Bayraktar TB2, used to great effect in the Armenia-Azerbaijan war of late 2020 and again in the first months of the Ukraine war in 2022.

1. Russia

• Number of planes: ~4,300
• Number of personnel: ~165,000

No surprise here. The reason that most NATO nations still have fighter jets at all is Russia, which has made little secret of its desire to expand westward. And while Russia has suffered incredible losses on land during its post-2022 invasion of Ukraine—suffering as many as 1.5 million casualties in the war, including some 450,000 deaths—its air force is still largely intact, owing at least in part to its desire to keep its most cutting-edge aircraft out of the Ukraine war. And while the Kremlin has had persistent difficulties in building new aircraft, it still has a large stockpile of capable aircraft from the late Soviet era, many of which have seen service in the ongoing war.

Today, even after its losses over Ukraine, Russia enjoys the largest fleet in Europe by hull volume, with over 900 front-line combat aircraft. Its arsenal largely consists of multirole 4.5-generation aircraft, including the Su-30 Flanker-C/G/H and Su-35 Flanker-E/M fighter jets and the Su-34 Fullback fighter-bomber. Russia also has one of the world’s only indigenous fifth-generation fighters, the Su-57 Felon, though production has been glacial and it has kept the aircraft well away from the conflict in order to preserve them for future use. Russia’s doctrine relies on mass and payload delivery, and while Russia has massive numbers on paper, Ukraine has exposed severe limitations in Russia’s precision-strike capabilities. Even so, no one should be under any illusions that Russia’s airpower is weak; it boasts what is certainly the strongest air force in Europe.

About the Author: Harrison Kass

Harrison Kass is a writer and attorney focused on national security, technology, and political culture. His work has appeared in Tablet, City Journal, The Hill, The Spectator, and The Cipher Brief. He holds a JD from the University of Oregon and a master’s in Global & Joint Program Studies from NYU. More at harrisonkass.com.

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